Free To Choose Essays - Marcus Aurelius, Meditations,

Free to Choose Annonymous [All page references and quotations from the Meditations are taken from the 1995 Everyman edition] In the Meditations, Descartes embarks upon what Bernard Williams has called the project of 'Pure Enquiry' to discover certain, indubitable foundations for knowledge. By subjecting everything to doubt Descartes hoped to discover whatever was immune to it. In order to best understand how and why Descartes builds his epistemological system up from his foundations in the way that he does, it is helpful to gain an understanding of the intellectual background of the 17th century that provided the motivation for his work. We can discern three distinct influences on Descartes, three conflicting world-views that fought for prominence in his day. The first was what remained of the mediaeval scholastic philosophy, largely based on Aristotelian science and Christian theology. Descartes had been taught according to this outlook during his time at the Jesuit college La Flech? and it had an important influence on his work, as we shall see later. The second was the scepticism that had made a sudden impact on the intellectual world, mainly as a reaction to the scholastic outlook. This scepticism was strongly influenced by the work of the Pyrrhonians as handed down from antiquity by Sextus Empiricus, which claimed that, as there is never a reason to believe p that is better than a reason not to believe p, we should forget about trying to discover the nature of reality and live by appearance alone. This attitude was best exemplified in the work of Michel de Montaigne, who mockingly dismissed the attempts of theologians and scientists to understand the nature of God and the universe respectively. Descartes felt the force of sceptical arguments and, while not being sceptically disposed himself, came to believe that scepticism towards knowledge was the best way to discover what is certain: by applying sceptical doubt to all our beliefs, we can discover which of them are indubitable, and thus form an adequate foundation for knowledge. The third world-view resulted largely from the work of the new scientists; Galileo, Copernicus, Bacon et al. Science had finally begun to assert itself and shake off its dated Aristotelian prejudices. Coherent theories about the world and its place in the universe were being constructed and many of those who were aware of this work became very optimistic about the influence it could have. Descartes was a child of the scientific revolution, but felt that until sceptical concerns were dealt with, science would always have to contend with Montaigne and his cronies, standing on the sidelines and laughing at science's pretenses to knowledge. Descartes' project, then, was to use the tools of the sceptic to disprove the sceptical thesis by discovering certain knowledge that could subsequently be used as the foundation of a new science, in which knowledge about the external world was as certain as knowledge about mathematics. It was also to hammer the last nail into the coffin of scholasticism, but also, arguably, to show that God still had a vital r?le to play in the discovery of knowledge. Meditation One describes Descartes' method of doubt. By its conclusion, Descartes has seemingly subjected all of his beliefs to the strongest and most hyberbolic of doubts. He invokes the nightmarish notion of an all-powerful, malign demon who could be deceiving him in the realm of sensory experience, in his very understanding of matter and even in the simplest cases of mathematical or logical truths. The doubts may be obscure, but this is the strength of the method - the weakness of criteria for what makes a doubt reasonable means that almost anything can count as a doubt, and therefore whatever withstands doubt must be something epistemologically formidable. In Meditation Two, Descartes hits upon the indubitable principle he has been seeking. He exists, at least when he thinks he exists. The cogito (Descartes' proof of his own existence) has been the source of a great deal of discussion ever since Descartes first formulated it in the 1637 Discourse on Method, and, I believe, a great deal of misinterpretation (quite possibly as a result of Descartes' repeated contradictions of his own position in subsequent writings). Many commentators have fallen prey to the tempting interpretation of the cogito as either syllogism or enthymeme. This view holds that Descartes asserts that he is thinking, that he believes it axiomatic that 'whatever thinks must exist' and therefore that he logically concludes that he exists. This view, it seems to me, is wrong. It should be stated on no occasion, in the Meditations, does Descartes write 'I am thinking, therefore I am', nor anything directly equivalent. Rather, he says: Doubtless, then, that I existand, let him deceive me as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long

laceds@hotmail.com essays

laceds@hotmail.com essays After observing a film that attempted to portray the legacy of Christopher Columbus, I have reached my own personal conclusions regarding his achievements, or, more appropriately, misadventures. Although it is true Columbus initiated an exchange of education in matters of foods, cultures, languages and wars, the means by which he was able to obtain wealth while westernizing the new world can hardily be considered appropriate or praiseworthy. Driven by his lust for new resources, land, power and wealth, Columbus was both ruthlessly ambitious and overly determined. So much so, that upon his arrival at San Salvador, he refused to believe the aboriginals when they revealed he arrived on an island. In his ignorance he continued to believe he was in Asia, addressing them as Indians. Being that Columbus was not of noble blood, he had to convince Ferdinand and Isabella his trip would profit them, creating empty promises to discover back door route to the riches of Asia Cathay. With these claims he gained support from the monarchs, while he also received religious backing from the Catholic Church by using religion as a guise to pursue his greedy desires. It is extremely ironic that Columbus manages to gain sponsorship from the two super-powers of his era, Church and state. His tactics werent all that conventional; one only needs to look to the past to see where he gained his insight. Time and time again leaders achieved their wealth by stripping it from the poor of the land by treachery and deceit (indulgences, for example) and by cruelly raising taxes on the serfs (poor of the land) and extracting more money through the cruelties of the feudal system. Columbus merely mimicked past victories in hopes to of achieving his pursuit of wealth and power. Columbus' greed was obviously a motivating factor as he was promised not only profit, but also the title of, 'Admiral.' ...

Michael Jackson Biography Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Michael Jackson Biography - Term Paper Example With a lot of and zeal for entertainment, he astounded people with his potential reliance and determination. It is due to his actions that the world finds him iconic, and within us, his miraculous deeds dwells. African-Americans, Joseph Jackson together his wife Katherine gave birth to Michael Jackson while living in Gary, a place in Indiana on the 29th day of August 1958 (7). Michael was born to a not so stable family as his father operated a crane in a steel mill company. His father had to sacrifice his musical ambitions in order to be there for his family. Michael was born number seven in a family of nine. He had three sisters and five brothers who all crashed in one house with only two bedrooms. Surprisingly, his father realized that his children had talents and immediately started nurturing it by bringing them together to form a musical group in the beginning of 1960s. Five years after Michael was born, he commenced his music career. He joined the group of his siblings and later became their group’s lead vocalist. Due to his talent, he portrayed huge enthusiasm for music with his remarkable and in-depth performance (21). As a younger performer, he impressed his audiences by use of his capability to portray diverse and complex moves and emotions. His parents raised him together with his siblings as Jehovah’s Witness whereby they practiced door-to-door gospel evangelization. Even after rising to fame, he continued to evangelize but at this time disguised himself and later left the church in 1987 after friction brew within the congregation elders because of his flamboyant style brought about by his career. Passion for music continued evolving within the Jackson 5. ... Although those who wrote about Michael Jackson’s family report that his father became violent and abused them, their combined efforts started paying off when Motown label founder Berry Gordy got impressed by their performance and signed them to his label in 1968. After they signed label with Gordy, Michael and his brothers had to relocate to Los Angeles where they would work as musicians and dancers. At this time, his father was their manager and with Gordy together with Supreme singer Diana Ross in 1969. Jackson 5 delivered their first album ‘Diana Ross Presents the Jackson 5’ in the same year that hit charts during December holiday. In January 1970, Michael released his first single ‘I Want You Back’ and hit number one on Hot 100 billboard. This served him as a breakthrough as his other songs like ‘ABC’ followed. First Work Analysis and Description Up to this time, his work received description of an icon yet to make the world of entert ainment a transitional world. In addition to his work, Michael launched solo career at the age of 13. In 1971, charts received more of his work that included ‘Got to Be There’ and in 1972, his album, Ben, stormed the music industry becoming the first solo No. 1 of the Jacksons’. Apart from singing, Michael wrote songs too. With great dancing moves coupled enlightenment, he helped his group become so popular to an extent that they even produced their cartoon show bearing their own title. The cartoon show ran for three years between 1971 and 1973. The Jacksons’ achieved a lot individually. Wrangles erupted, as they wanted to control their recordings more. As a result, their relationship with Motown broke in 1975. They moved to Epic Records, signed a new recording deal, and started

JPMorgan Chase Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

JPMorgan Chase - Research Paper Example 1. Discussion on How Administrative Agencies Like The Securities And Exchange Commission (SEC) Or The Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) Take Action In Order To Be effective in preventing high-risk gambles in securities / banking, a foundation of the economy In the modern day context, financial sector forms a major part in the economic system of any country, irrespective of its global positioning. The fact can also be observed evidently even in the case of the US, which faced massive turmoil due to the downfall of JPMorgan Chase, a large financial services firm supposedly considered to a pillar of the US economy. In order to maintain legitimacy in these firms, the US government has been making attempts to regulate the financial dealings and the transparency of these organizations through the imposition of various policy measures. Correspondingly, many governmental bodies have been set-up, which are solely responsible to monitor the activities of the US financial system. For instance, the administrate agency, Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) helps in regulating the trading of options and futures as well as the banking sector. The CFTC, in order to prevent the high risks in securities or banking sectors, has been involved in implementing effective programs to trace and take actions against unethical behavior in the business process. Therefore, it protects the economy from many types of frauds related to commodity market, foreign currency trading, commodity pool participants and brokers activities (U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, n.d). The important elements, which are required to form a valid contract, usually involve an offer with a legal purpose by the offeror, free consent of the offeree, acceptance, consideration, competent parties, mutuality of obligation (Texas.gov, n.d.). Today, in the US, the customers are considered as a valuable asset for the banks

Decision support systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Decision support systems - Essay Example formation technology in the business and corporate structures is to enhance the overall corporate performance and enhanced management of the business data. This paper presents the most valuable business and corporate information technology systems regarding the better and effective business decision making that is known as the decision support systems (DSS). The main intention of this research is to offer a deep and compliance overview of the decision support systems (DSS) and its implementation in the effective corporate working and operational structure management. This paper will outline the basic system definitions, emergence, potential implementation areas and operational examples. According to (Turban, Leidner and McLean 18), an information system collects, processes, stores, evaluates, and distributes information for a particular function. Similar to any other system, an information system consists of inputs (such as instructions and data) and outputs (reports, calculations). It performs operations on the inputs by using technology like PCs and develops outputs that are delivered to users or to other systems by means of electronic networks (Turban, Leidner and McLean 18). In addition, â€Å"the term information system can be described technically as a collection of interrelated components that bring together, process, store, and distribute information to carry decision making and control in an organization† Information systems keep and maintain information about important people, places, and things inside the corporation or in the set up surrounding it (Laudon and Laudon 7) and (Hoffer, Prescott and McFadden 429). Also, a management information system is a function or use of information system that offers for management oriented reporting. These reports are typically developed or produced on a predetermined schedule and come out in a prearranged structure (Whitten, Bentley and Dittman 47). According to (Whitten, Bentley and Dittman 47), a decision support

Effects of Oestrogen Changes

Effects of Oestrogen Changes Executive function is influenced by oestrogen- in the brain the area associated to executive functions, memory and attention is the prefrontal cortex (Pettit, 2013). As during the female lifespan the levels of oestrogen changes, and the executive functions experiences some issues when these levels are low, for example after childbirth and around menopause (Craig et al., 2008). Although the low levels of oestrogen after childbirth and lactation are temporary, after the menopause these levels do not increase naturally. As the world population experience longer life span, some diseases are estimated to increase with age. One of the most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which mostly occur in later life (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Alzheimer’s disease affects the working memory, attention planning and other executive functions; it is a progressive disease and it is considered by deteriorating cognitive deficits, affective disturbances, delusion, and on the later stages, it also start motor and sensory problems (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Most of the patients with Alzheimer’s disease showed episodic memory loss, semantic memory loss and depressed mood (Ka Birkha, 2000). In the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient, the episodic memory loss is related to severe pathological changes within hippocampal and parahippocampal structures of the medial temporal lobes (Hyman et al., 1984 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000) and to a deficiency in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Coyle et al., 1983 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000). In 1975, a pioneer study in rats found that oestrogen upregulates the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the rats brain (Luine, Khylchevskaya, McEwen, 1975). After ten years, another study confirmed that the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the medial aspect of the horizontal diagonal band nucleus, the frontal cortex, and cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) of the dorsal hippocampus were increased after the administration of oestrogens (Luine, 1985). Furthermore, the human nucleus basalis of meynert (a telencephalic structure that provides most of the acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex) in Alzheimer’s disease has been noticed the upregulation of oestrogen receptors (Behl, 2002). Thus, many studies suggest the use of oestrogens as a treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, as in fact, oestrogens increases the activity of acetylcholine, promotes the growth of neurons and their connections, enhances blood flow in the brain and seems to constrain the toxic effect of ÃŽ ²-amyloid (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). However, the prominent reason in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with oestrogens is the low rate of Alzheimer’s disease in women who after menopause had used the hormone replacement therapy (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). Despite of this fact, some studies showed that the use of oestrogen replacement therapy (ORT) had no improvement of the cognition and no halts the degeneration of women with Alzheimer’s disease (Larkin, 2000). Because of the changes of oestrogens during the women lifespan, some studies suggest that there is a critical time related to start the hormonal replacement therapy to have an effect in Alzheimer’s disease (Brinton, 2004; Ka Birkha, 2000; Pettit, 2013). Thus, oestrogen changes is not only affects women with Alzheimer’s disease, b ut also the executive functions in all women during their lifespan. Oestrogen is commonly known as female sex hormone, and there are three types of oestrogen, the 17ÃŽ ²-oestradiol, oestrone and oestriol (Darlington, 2002). There are two other types of sex hormones, the male sex hormone – testosterone, and the pregnancy hormone – progesterone. The release of these hormones are controlled by the hypothalamus through the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone which acts on the anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the release of the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone (Darlington, 2002). During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens change, such as menstrual cycle, pregnancy and menopause (Pettit, 2013). The menstrual cycle occurs during puberty and last until menopause, except during pregnancy. The ovulation occurs when there is a peak in the release of luteinising hormone, this hormone regulates the secretion of oestrogen, which in conjunction with the follicle-stimulating hormone control the development of t he follicle (Darlington, 2002). The oestrogen levels reaches the peak during ovulation phase (mid cycle) and the bottom during the menstrual phase (bleeding), during menstrual cycle (Pettit, 2013). In the pregnancy the levels of oestrogens also gradually change, they reach a peak by the third trimester of the pregnancy, and this peak will be the highest level of oestrogen in the female lifespan. On the other hand, the lowest level of oestrogen in a female lifespan will be the menopause, when the levels of oestrogens decline both in the brain and in the body (Melton, 2000 as cited in Pettit, 2013). The differentiation of the female physiology is this cyclic rise and fall of hormones levels (Darlington, 2002). Furthermore, oestrogen is not only responsible for reproductive functions, it has a role on the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it also affects the development, growth, differentiation, maturation and function of several tissues in the body (Behl, 2002). Some studies had investigated the differences between men and women and concluded that most of the differences in the brain mechanism and structure is related to oestrogens; the structural, cellular, and molecular differences in the brain is called true dimorphisms (Gillies McArthur, 2010). The main areas of the brain that are affect by these differences are the hippocampus, amygdala and cortex, which are responsible for the memory and cognition (Kelly et al., 1999; Baron-Cohen et al., 2005 as cited in Gillies McArthur, 2010). Additionally, oestrogen receptors are also found in astrocytes and other types of glial cell; in the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the preoptic area, and the forebrain are the highest levels of oestrogen receptors expression; and the oestrogen receptors density is greater in the hypothalamus than in extra hypothalamic regions, for instance the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex (Behl, 2002). To investigate how the fluctuations of oestrogen affect both the neuropsychological and neurophysiological parameters, and to visualise changes during the menstrual cycle, a study has use a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image cortical activation patterns associated with cognitive and motor activation. The results showed that in both neuropsychological tasks blood oestrogen level had a profound effect on the size but not on the lateralisation or the localisation of cortical activation patterns; moreover a noticeable increase in perfusion in cortical areas involved in both cognitive tasks was noticed during the oestrogen peak in the female brain (Dietrich et al., 2001). Another study also investigate the oestrogen fluctuations during the menstrual phase, the results suggested that when the oestrogen are in their peak, some regions show enhanced activation; one of these regions was the cortical region, which is has a connection with auditory and linguistic functions, w hich mean that additional functional networks are recruited (Schà ¶ning et al., 2007). Craig and collegues (2008) stated that women in specific times of their lives, (for instance childbirth, and around menopause), commonly complain of memory problems, which are related with oestrogen changes; their results showed that a biological justification for previous reports might be the higher oestrogen levels, which is associated with improvement of verbal memory performance during the normal menstrual cycle. Therefore, the main problem of the oestrogen changes is the menopause, where the oestrogens levels drastically fall. Evidence from a study showed an executive dysfunction in a women at menopause without hormonal replacement therapy, the results also suggested that the interruption of cognitive processes is promoted by the frontal lobes rather than the hippocampus; additionally, oestrogen improves the execution of working memory tasks and the prefrontal cortex is essential for intact working memory (Keenan, Ezzat, Ginsburg, Moore, 2001). A longitudinal study showed significant differences in regional cerebral blood flow during the memory tasks between women on ORT and women without, also women on ORT had better performance on neuropsychological tests of figural and verbal memory (Resnick, Maki, Golski, Kraut, Zonderman, 1998). Hence many studies had showed the improvement of executive functions, memory and attention on the ORT for women in menopause, however there is a crucial timin g to start the ORT, the critical period hypothesis. The oestrogen need to be taken when neurological health is still intact to have positive effects, before or at the time of menopause, otherwise if the replacement start after menopause, it can have harmful effects (Rettberg, Yao, Brinton, 2014). In conclusion, oestrogen is very important to the best functioning of the female brain. Executive functions, memory and attention are especially related to the levels of oestrogen. During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens naturally change, reaching the peak on the third trimester of pregnancy and the lowest levels at menopause. Many studies showed the importance of the oestrogen replacement therapy, not only to alleviate the menopause symptoms but especially on the improvement of cognition. However there is the critical period hypothesis, which suggest that the time to start the ORT is before or at the time of the menopause to have the beneficial effect of it. Although there is a relation between low oestrogen levels and Alzheimer’s disease, evidences showed that the use of OTR in Alzheimer’s patients had no improvement. Finally, oestrogens and time are together, and the crucial timing to start the OTR can modify a life, the importance of future researches in this area is to provide a better future for women and maybe decrease the numbers of Alzheimer’s patients.

Journey through Hell in Blood Meridian Essay -- Blood Meridian Essays

Journey through Hell in Blood Meridian Cormac McCarthy's novel Blood Meridian details what can only be described as the kid's journey through hell. Throughout the novel McCarthy gives the reader the sensation of being in hell. The is brutal and unforgiving physical setting adds a hellish atmosphere in which there is no evidence of any morals or sympathy for the innocent. Judge Holden is even described in terms reminiscent of the devil. All of these factors lead the reader to compare the kid's journey through the Mexican-American border country with a descent into hell. Blood Meridian is set in a place and time period where there was little societal structure and a lot of racial hatred. The very land that the kid travels is full of dirty saloons and people in poverty. As McCarthy writes, "bone palings ruled the small and dusty purlieus here and death seemed the most prevalent feature of the landscape" (48). The country is definitely not travel-friendly. There is an added element of godlessness in the kid's journey. When the kid signs up with a group of renegade nationalists, t...